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Skill Development of skills leads to expertise. model Anderson's ACT* Model Adaptive Control of Thought Predicts less use of verbal (declarative) and more of autonomous productions as skill rises., Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions. search-with Heuristics General strategies for problem solving. A good heuristic has a high probability of offering a solution however, unlike an, algorithm it is not guaranteed to do so., Problem Solving results-in Skill Development of skills leads to expertise., Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions. example Towers of Hanoi Use of sub-goals to recursively solve the problem., Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions. example Water Jugs, Cognitive Stage Procedural Stage Autonomic Stage explains Stroop Effect We automatically comprehend both the colour and the semantic content & expect them to match., Behaviourist The behaviorist approach is fundamentally reproductive. by Trial and Error Where there is no learned solution, random attempts will be made until a solution if found (Thorndikes cats), Behaviourist The behaviorist approach is fundamentally reproductive. by Learned Association We approach a problem in terms of past solutions learned for this problem., Analogy Analogies are examples which aid us in gaining insight into a problem. Evidence suggests that 1 analogy may not be enough & 2 are required. example Radiation Problem How to deliver a high does of Radiation to a tumour without damaging healthy tissue? The "castle & bridges" analogy hints at rotating the radiation source to deliver a low dose to a large amount of surrounding tissue., Skill Development of skills leads to expertise. stages Cognitive Stage Procedural Stage Autonomic Stage, Restructuring the problem can lead to new ways of solving it. example Kohlers Ape Sultan was able to reach bananas by realising he could stack boxes to the right height. However we cannot prove that this was insight rather than a complex chain of associations., Problem Solving supported-by Analogy Analogies are examples which aid us in gaining insight into a problem. Evidence suggests that 1 analogy may not be enough & 2 are required., Skill Development of skills leads to expertise. develops-into Expertise Studies on chess GM's shows that their advantages derive from the schema they have internalized., Gestalt The Gestalist approach is productive and about looking holistically at a problem. by Restructuring the problem can lead to new ways of solving it., Gestalt The Gestalist approach is productive and about looking holistically at a problem. by Insight Gaining insight means seeing a way of restructuring the problem to find a solution., Analogy Analogies are examples which aid us in gaining insight into a problem. Evidence suggests that 1 analogy may not be enough & 2 are required. kind-of Domain Specific A domain specific analogy is likely to be highly appropriate to the current problem (using similar terms, assumptions, etc...), Analogy Analogies are examples which aid us in gaining insight into a problem. Evidence suggests that 1 analogy may not be enough & 2 are required. kind-of Cross-Domain Evidence suggests that it is harder to make use of a cross-domain analogy and that hints may be needed., Radiation Problem How to deliver a high does of Radiation to a tumour without damaging healthy tissue? The "castle & bridges" analogy hints at rotating the radiation source to deliver a low dose to a large amount of surrounding tissue. analysis Most people do not spontaneously arrive at the solution to this problem., Heuristics General strategies for problem solving. A good heuristic has a high probability of offering a solution however, unlike an, algorithm it is not guaranteed to do so. examples Repeat State Avoidance Avoid steps which take you back to a previous state in the solution., Heuristics General strategies for problem solving. A good heuristic has a high probability of offering a solution however, unlike an, algorithm it is not guaranteed to do so. examples Means Ends Analysis The use of sub-goals to take steps towards an end goal, Heuristics General strategies for problem solving. A good heuristic has a high probability of offering a solution however, unlike an, algorithm it is not guaranteed to do so. examples Difference Reduction "Hill climbing" find the closest solution to the end goal., Heuristics General strategies for problem solving. A good heuristic has a high probability of offering a solution however, unlike an, algorithm it is not guaranteed to do so. examples Working Backwards Start with the goal and work backwards to arrive at the inital state., Problem Solving approach Behaviourist The behaviorist approach is fundamentally reproductive., Problem Solving approach Gestalt The Gestalist approach is productive and about looking holistically at a problem., Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions. supported-by The General Problem Solver Newell & Simon, 1972 A program which can reason, using, operators, from a given set of facts to generate new facts., Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions. supported-by Think aloud protocols Listening to subjects describe their thought proceses as they attempt to solve a problem (note different to introspection), Problem Solving in Problem Space Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) Problem space theory suggests that we "search" for a solution among a set of possible solutions., Problem Solving problems Functional Fixedness The inability to see functions of an object beyond those which are common for that object (e.g. match box in the candle problem), Problem Solving problems Mental Set Gestaltists theorized that having learned a solution to a problem this solution is re-used even when it ceases to be appropriate. (Water Jugs)
